Introduction.
India (in Hindi, Bharat), officially Republic of India, federal democracy in southern Asia and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, comprising, with Pakistan and Bangladesh, the subcontinent of India. India is the seventh-largest country in the world and the second most populous, after China. It geographically consists of the entire Indian peninsula and portions of the Asian mainland. India is bordered on the north by Afghanistan, Tibet, Nepal, China, and Bhutan; on the south by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar, which separate it from Sri Lanka, and the Indian Ocean; on the west by the Arabian Sea and Pakistan; on the east by Myanmar (Burma), the Bay of Bengal and Bangladesh, which almost cuts off north-east India from the rest of the country. With Jammu and Kashmir (the definitive status of which has not been determined), India has an area of 3,165,596 sq km (1,222,243 sq mi). The capital of India is New Delhi, and the country’s largest city is Mumbai (formerly Bombay).
Land & Resource
India may be divided into four main regions: the Himalaya, the northern river-plains, the Deccan Plateau, and the Eastern and Western Ghats.The Himalaya mountain system is about 160 to 320 km (100 to 200 mi) wide and extends about 2,410 km (1,498 mi) along the northern and eastern margins of the Indian subcontinent, separating it from the rest of Asia. It is the highest, youngest, and one of the most active mountain systems in the world. Notable peaks wholly or partly within India include Kanchenjunga (8,598 m/28,208 ft), the third-highest peak in the world, after Mount Everest and K2 (Mount Godwin-Austen), Nanga Parbat (8,126 m/26,660 ft), Nanda Devi (7,817 m/25,645 ft), Rakaposhi (7,788 m/25,550 ft), and Kamet (7,756 m/25,447 ft).Lying south of and parallel to the Himalaya is the northern plains region, a vast belt of flat lands about 280 to 400 km (175 to 250 mi) in width. The region is the world’s largest alluvial plain and comprises the major part of the area watered by the Indus, the Ganges, and the Brahmaputra rivers. Because of the abundance of water and the rich alluvial soil, the northern plains are the most fertile and densely populated part of India and were the cradle of its civilization. They extend west-east from the Pakistan border to the Bangladesh border, continuing east into north-east India via the narrow corridor of land near Darjiling.
The central and western portions of the Indian plains region are watered by the River Ganges and its tributaries, which drain the southern slopes of the Himalaya; the region is known consequently as the Gangetic plain. The north-eastern states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are watered by the River Brahmaputra and its affluents, which rise in the northern ranges of the Himalaya. The Brahmaputra crosses into Bangladesh north of the Khasi Hills. The River Indus rises in Tibet, flows west through Jammu and Kashmir State, and crosses into Pakistan. On the south-western border with Pakistan the plains give way to the Great Indian Desert and the salt marshes known as the Rann of Kachchh.
South of the plains lies the Deccan Plateau, a vast, triangular tableland occupying most of peninsular India. Generally rocky, the Deccan is an uneven plateau divided into natural regions by low mountain ranges and deep valleys. Elevations range from about 305 to 915 m (1,000 to 3,000 ft), although outcroppings as high as 1,220 m (4,000 ft) occur. The Deccan is bordered by the mountain systems known as the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats.
The Western Ghats, a steep escarpment overlooking the Arabian Sea, have a general elevation of about 915 m (3,000 ft). The fertile Malabar Coast lies between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The Eastern Ghats average about 460 m (1,500 ft) in height. Between them and the Bay of Bengal is a narrow coastal plain, the Coromandel Coast. The two ranges meet at the southernmost point of the Deccan (near Bangalore) in the Nilgiri Hills.
climate
Because of the peninsularity, unusual topography, and geographical position of India, climatic conditions are widely diversified, on both a seasonal and regional basis. The diversity ranges from tropical to temperate zonal extremes; the temperature extremes are confined largely to the slopes of the Himalaya. Except in the more mountainous regions, most of the rest of India has a uniformly tropical climate. Seasonal variations, resulting from the south-western and north-eastern monsoons, profoundly influence temperature, humidity, and precipitation throughout the subcontinent. For general purposes, the seasons of India may be classified as rainy and dry. The rainy season, which generally extends from June to November, is the season of the south-western monsoon, a moisture-laden wind blowing off the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea. Beginning early in June on the western coast of the peninsula, the monsoon gradually affects almost the entire country. During this season, rainfall can be very heavy—along the slopes of the Western Ghats it often reaches more than 3,175 mm (125 in). At Cherrapunji in the Khasi Hills of north-eastern India, the yearly rainfall is about 10,920 mm (430 in). Mean annual precipitation along the southern slopes of the Himalaya is about 1,525 mm (60 in). The south-western monsoon fails at times, causing droughts and occasionally famine. However, the rains are a mixed blessing. They lead to the proliferation of malaria-carrying mosquitoes, while the contrast between day- and night-time temperatures encourages respiratory disorders. Normally, the power of the monsoon diminishes in September.
The cool season of the north-eastern monsoon, extending from early December until after the end of February, is usually accompanied by extremely dry weather—although severe storms, attended by slight precipitation on the northern plains and heavy snowfalls in the Himalaya, sometimes cross the country. The hot season, beginning about the middle of March and extending until the onset of the south-western monsoon, is most oppressive during May, when temperatures as high as 51.7° C (125° F) are not uncommon in central India. In the vicinity of Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), the mean annual temperature is about 26.1° C (79° F). The mean annual temperature in the west-central coastal region of the peninsula is about 27.8° C (82° F). Around Chennai (formerly Madras) temperatures range between about 24.4° and 33.3° C (76° to 92° F), with an annual mean of about 28.9° C (84° F).
Natural Resources
India contains more than two thirds of the entire area of the Indian subcontinent, including most of the highly fertile Gangetic plain. In addition to extensive cultivable regions, a comprehensive irrigation network, and valuable stands of timber, India has most of the known mineral deposits of the subcontinent. However, though it has rich resources, in many areas these have not yet been fully exploited.
The central and western portions of the Indian plains region are watered by the River Ganges and its tributaries, which drain the southern slopes of the Himalaya; the region is known consequently as the Gangetic plain. The north-eastern states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are watered by the River Brahmaputra and its affluents, which rise in the northern ranges of the Himalaya. The Brahmaputra crosses into Bangladesh north of the Khasi Hills. The River Indus rises in Tibet, flows west through Jammu and Kashmir State, and crosses into Pakistan. On the south-western border with Pakistan the plains give way to the Great Indian Desert and the salt marshes known as the Rann of Kachchh.
South of the plains lies the Deccan Plateau, a vast, triangular tableland occupying most of peninsular India. Generally rocky, the Deccan is an uneven plateau divided into natural regions by low mountain ranges and deep valleys. Elevations range from about 305 to 915 m (1,000 to 3,000 ft), although outcroppings as high as 1,220 m (4,000 ft) occur. The Deccan is bordered by the mountain systems known as the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats.
The Western Ghats, a steep escarpment overlooking the Arabian Sea, have a general elevation of about 915 m (3,000 ft). The fertile Malabar Coast lies between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The Eastern Ghats average about 460 m (1,500 ft) in height. Between them and the Bay of Bengal is a narrow coastal plain, the Coromandel Coast. The two ranges meet at the southernmost point of the Deccan (near Bangalore) in the Nilgiri Hills.
climate
Because of the peninsularity, unusual topography, and geographical position of India, climatic conditions are widely diversified, on both a seasonal and regional basis. The diversity ranges from tropical to temperate zonal extremes; the temperature extremes are confined largely to the slopes of the Himalaya. Except in the more mountainous regions, most of the rest of India has a uniformly tropical climate. Seasonal variations, resulting from the south-western and north-eastern monsoons, profoundly influence temperature, humidity, and precipitation throughout the subcontinent. For general purposes, the seasons of India may be classified as rainy and dry. The rainy season, which generally extends from June to November, is the season of the south-western monsoon, a moisture-laden wind blowing off the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea. Beginning early in June on the western coast of the peninsula, the monsoon gradually affects almost the entire country. During this season, rainfall can be very heavy—along the slopes of the Western Ghats it often reaches more than 3,175 mm (125 in). At Cherrapunji in the Khasi Hills of north-eastern India, the yearly rainfall is about 10,920 mm (430 in). Mean annual precipitation along the southern slopes of the Himalaya is about 1,525 mm (60 in). The south-western monsoon fails at times, causing droughts and occasionally famine. However, the rains are a mixed blessing. They lead to the proliferation of malaria-carrying mosquitoes, while the contrast between day- and night-time temperatures encourages respiratory disorders. Normally, the power of the monsoon diminishes in September.
The cool season of the north-eastern monsoon, extending from early December until after the end of February, is usually accompanied by extremely dry weather—although severe storms, attended by slight precipitation on the northern plains and heavy snowfalls in the Himalaya, sometimes cross the country. The hot season, beginning about the middle of March and extending until the onset of the south-western monsoon, is most oppressive during May, when temperatures as high as 51.7° C (125° F) are not uncommon in central India. In the vicinity of Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), the mean annual temperature is about 26.1° C (79° F). The mean annual temperature in the west-central coastal region of the peninsula is about 27.8° C (82° F). Around Chennai (formerly Madras) temperatures range between about 24.4° and 33.3° C (76° to 92° F), with an annual mean of about 28.9° C (84° F).
Natural Resources
India contains more than two thirds of the entire area of the Indian subcontinent, including most of the highly fertile Gangetic plain. In addition to extensive cultivable regions, a comprehensive irrigation network, and valuable stands of timber, India has most of the known mineral deposits of the subcontinent. However, though it has rich resources, in many areas these have not yet been fully exploited.
Plants and Animals
In the arid areas that adjoin Pakistan, the flora is sparse and largely herbaceous. Thorny species, including representatives of the genera Capparis (caper) and Zizyphus (jujube), are common. Bamboo occurs in some areas, and the palm is among the few varieties of trees. The wetter Gangetic plain supports many plant species. Vegetation is especially luxuriant in the south-eastern plains, where the mangrove and the sal, a hardwood, flourish.
Many varieties of arctic flora are found on the higher slopes of the Himalaya. The densely forested lower ranges of the Himalaya support numerous species of subtropical plants, notably the orchidaceae. Coniferous species, including cedar and pine, predominate in the north-western Himalaya. To the east, the Himalayan slopes abound with tropical and subtropical vegetation, notably the rhododendron. The oak and magnolia are among the predominant trees. The Malabar Coast of the south-western peninsula and the slopes of the Western Ghats, areas of high rainfall, are thickly wooded. Evergreens, bamboo, and valuable timber varieties, including teak, predominate in this region. Extensive tracts of impenetrable jungle occur in the swampy lowlands and along the lower slopes of the Western Ghats. The vegetation of the Deccan is less luxuriant, but thickets of bamboo, palm, and deciduous trees are found throughout the peninsula.
The forests, plains, hills, and mountains of India are inhabited by a wide variety of animal life. The cat family is well represented, with the tiger and panther, snow and clouded leopard, jungle cat, and, in the Deccan, the cheetah. Lions are also found, though now limited to the Gir National Park in Gujarat. Strenuous national and international efforts to protect the tiger, which was once on the verge of extinction, have resulted in a healthy build-up of populations to several thousand, protected in reserves such as that at Ranthambore, in Rajasthan.
The Asian elephant is found along the north-eastern slopes of the Himalaya and in the remote forests of the Deccan. The rhinoceros, guar, black bear, wolf, jackal, dhole, wild buffalo, wild pig, and several species of ape, antelope, and deer are also indigenous to India. Various species of wild goat and sheep as well as the ibex and the serow (related to the chamois) are found in the Himalaya and other mountainous areas. The pygmy pig, bandicoot rat, and tree mouse are typical of the smaller mammals.
India has many different kinds of snake. Venomous species include the cobra, the daboia, and salt-water snakes. Among non-venomous species, pythons usefully consume destructive rodents. Indigenous reptiles also include the crocodile. India’s birdlife includes parrots, peacocks, kingfishers, and herons. The rivers and coastal waters of India teem with fish, including many edible varieties.
Conservation
India has a strong conservation and environmental protection movement, which has campaigned and lobbied with considerable success against the destruction of habitats through the demands of continuing and rapid industrialization, and population pressures. Examples of campaigns include the “tree huggers” who have fought deforestation in the Himalaya, the prevention of the Silent Valley project in Kerala (a major hydroelectric scheme that would have destroyed the habitat of species unique to the region), and most recently, the long, drawn out, and bitter battle to stop the massive Narmada Dam Project in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. On another front, environmentalist groups have delayed the Tehri project, involving the construction of dams in a highly seismic region of the Himalaya. Among the current environmental concerns in India are deforestation, desertification, lack of access to water, air and water pollution, and the strain placed on natural resources by a huge and growing population.
In the arid areas that adjoin Pakistan, the flora is sparse and largely herbaceous. Thorny species, including representatives of the genera Capparis (caper) and Zizyphus (jujube), are common. Bamboo occurs in some areas, and the palm is among the few varieties of trees. The wetter Gangetic plain supports many plant species. Vegetation is especially luxuriant in the south-eastern plains, where the mangrove and the sal, a hardwood, flourish.
Many varieties of arctic flora are found on the higher slopes of the Himalaya. The densely forested lower ranges of the Himalaya support numerous species of subtropical plants, notably the orchidaceae. Coniferous species, including cedar and pine, predominate in the north-western Himalaya. To the east, the Himalayan slopes abound with tropical and subtropical vegetation, notably the rhododendron. The oak and magnolia are among the predominant trees. The Malabar Coast of the south-western peninsula and the slopes of the Western Ghats, areas of high rainfall, are thickly wooded. Evergreens, bamboo, and valuable timber varieties, including teak, predominate in this region. Extensive tracts of impenetrable jungle occur in the swampy lowlands and along the lower slopes of the Western Ghats. The vegetation of the Deccan is less luxuriant, but thickets of bamboo, palm, and deciduous trees are found throughout the peninsula.
The forests, plains, hills, and mountains of India are inhabited by a wide variety of animal life. The cat family is well represented, with the tiger and panther, snow and clouded leopard, jungle cat, and, in the Deccan, the cheetah. Lions are also found, though now limited to the Gir National Park in Gujarat. Strenuous national and international efforts to protect the tiger, which was once on the verge of extinction, have resulted in a healthy build-up of populations to several thousand, protected in reserves such as that at Ranthambore, in Rajasthan.
The Asian elephant is found along the north-eastern slopes of the Himalaya and in the remote forests of the Deccan. The rhinoceros, guar, black bear, wolf, jackal, dhole, wild buffalo, wild pig, and several species of ape, antelope, and deer are also indigenous to India. Various species of wild goat and sheep as well as the ibex and the serow (related to the chamois) are found in the Himalaya and other mountainous areas. The pygmy pig, bandicoot rat, and tree mouse are typical of the smaller mammals.
India has many different kinds of snake. Venomous species include the cobra, the daboia, and salt-water snakes. Among non-venomous species, pythons usefully consume destructive rodents. Indigenous reptiles also include the crocodile. India’s birdlife includes parrots, peacocks, kingfishers, and herons. The rivers and coastal waters of India teem with fish, including many edible varieties.
Conservation
India has a strong conservation and environmental protection movement, which has campaigned and lobbied with considerable success against the destruction of habitats through the demands of continuing and rapid industrialization, and population pressures. Examples of campaigns include the “tree huggers” who have fought deforestation in the Himalaya, the prevention of the Silent Valley project in Kerala (a major hydroelectric scheme that would have destroyed the habitat of species unique to the region), and most recently, the long, drawn out, and bitter battle to stop the massive Narmada Dam Project in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. On another front, environmentalist groups have delayed the Tehri project, involving the construction of dams in a highly seismic region of the Himalaya. Among the current environmental concerns in India are deforestation, desertification, lack of access to water, air and water pollution, and the strain placed on natural resources by a huge and growing population.
POPULATION
The diverse racial and cultural origins of the people of India are bound intricately with those of the other peoples of the Indian subcontinent, including the inhabitants of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, as well as those further afield. The exact origins of most Indian people are impossible to determine because of the large variety of races and cultures that have invaded and been assimiliated into the subcontinent. However, elements of three major racial groups—the Caucasoid, the Australoid, and the Mongoloid—may be found in present-day India. At times, geography and environment have encouraged successive waves of migrants to mingle with the indigenous peoples. However, environmental and historical factors have also favoured the coexistence in India of many different peoples with distinct physical and cultural characteristics. This is reflected in India’s linguistic diversity; the country has 18 major languages and more than 1,000 minor ones (see Indian Languages).
Approximately 8 per cent of the total population belongs to more than 300 so-called scheduled tribes. These tribal or aboriginal groups are racially and culturally distinct from the majority Indian population and also tend to vary considerably among themselves.
Broadly speaking, the majority of non-tribal Indian peoples are predominantly Caucasoid in features, showing considerable variation in skin colour. Mongoloid features are seen in the hill tribes of the very north, such as the Nagas. Australoid features are also seen among the tribal groups, such as the Santal of Bangla.
The majority of people in the north and east speak Indo-Aryan languages such as Assamese, Punjabi, Urdu, Hindi, and Bengali. The influence of close contact with Persia and the Mughal period are apparent in the language as well as the architecture, clothing, and other aspects of life in the north. These languages derive from Sanskrit, now essentially a dead language, but still used in the reading of sacred texts and other religious ceremonies. In contrast, the Dravidian languages of the south, such as Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam, derive primarily from Tamil, although Malayalam contains a considerable number of Sanskrit words. All these languages boast substantial and rich literatures. Of the 18 languages recognized in the constitution, one, Manipuri, the language of the far northern state of Manipur, is Sino-Tibetan in origin.
Among the tribal peoples, often living in relatively isolated hilly regions, a number have maintained their unique cultures and customs, although the encroaching of the mainstream population has caused considerable assimilation and erosion of traditional ways of life.
The diverse racial and cultural origins of the people of India are bound intricately with those of the other peoples of the Indian subcontinent, including the inhabitants of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, as well as those further afield. The exact origins of most Indian people are impossible to determine because of the large variety of races and cultures that have invaded and been assimiliated into the subcontinent. However, elements of three major racial groups—the Caucasoid, the Australoid, and the Mongoloid—may be found in present-day India. At times, geography and environment have encouraged successive waves of migrants to mingle with the indigenous peoples. However, environmental and historical factors have also favoured the coexistence in India of many different peoples with distinct physical and cultural characteristics. This is reflected in India’s linguistic diversity; the country has 18 major languages and more than 1,000 minor ones (see Indian Languages).
Approximately 8 per cent of the total population belongs to more than 300 so-called scheduled tribes. These tribal or aboriginal groups are racially and culturally distinct from the majority Indian population and also tend to vary considerably among themselves.
Broadly speaking, the majority of non-tribal Indian peoples are predominantly Caucasoid in features, showing considerable variation in skin colour. Mongoloid features are seen in the hill tribes of the very north, such as the Nagas. Australoid features are also seen among the tribal groups, such as the Santal of Bangla.
The majority of people in the north and east speak Indo-Aryan languages such as Assamese, Punjabi, Urdu, Hindi, and Bengali. The influence of close contact with Persia and the Mughal period are apparent in the language as well as the architecture, clothing, and other aspects of life in the north. These languages derive from Sanskrit, now essentially a dead language, but still used in the reading of sacred texts and other religious ceremonies. In contrast, the Dravidian languages of the south, such as Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam, derive primarily from Tamil, although Malayalam contains a considerable number of Sanskrit words. All these languages boast substantial and rich literatures. Of the 18 languages recognized in the constitution, one, Manipuri, the language of the far northern state of Manipur, is Sino-Tibetan in origin.
Among the tribal peoples, often living in relatively isolated hilly regions, a number have maintained their unique cultures and customs, although the encroaching of the mainstream population has caused considerable assimilation and erosion of traditional ways of life.
Caste
The Indian constitution sets out the resolve to eradicate the age-old system of caste, which has denied for centuries the opportunity of social advancement to the lowest stratum of the system, the Dalits (formerly “Untouchables” or Harijans, “children of God”, as Gandhi named them). Considerable steps were taken after independence actively to promote the education and welfare of these depressed classes, most notably through a system of positive discrimination—by assigning a quota of up to 50 per cent of places in universities and professional institutions to the “scheduled” castes. Old traditions die hard, however, and despite these efforts and those of individuals such as Gandhi, Ambedkar, and others, prejudice, mainly in the social sphere, remains. Nevertheless, individuals from scheduled-caste backgrounds are now found in all walks of life and include eminent scientists, judges, and politicians. In recent years, as a business-led, consumer culture evolves, with status counted more by material wealth than family and tradition, the hold of caste is declining, with many inter-caste marriages, especially among the urban middle classes.
In the political sphere, parties and organizations based on caste lines have often been vociferous in the demanding of rights and the protection of the interests of their communities. Politicians and parties frequently seek to secure the votes of particular jatis (sub-castes). Allegiances, however, tend to be fluid and often based on expediency. The continuation of the system of positive discrimination in university entrance has caused friction with non-scheduled-caste students, who claim it has resulted in intolerably high entrance requirements for other castes and lowered standards.
The Indian constitution sets out the resolve to eradicate the age-old system of caste, which has denied for centuries the opportunity of social advancement to the lowest stratum of the system, the Dalits (formerly “Untouchables” or Harijans, “children of God”, as Gandhi named them). Considerable steps were taken after independence actively to promote the education and welfare of these depressed classes, most notably through a system of positive discrimination—by assigning a quota of up to 50 per cent of places in universities and professional institutions to the “scheduled” castes. Old traditions die hard, however, and despite these efforts and those of individuals such as Gandhi, Ambedkar, and others, prejudice, mainly in the social sphere, remains. Nevertheless, individuals from scheduled-caste backgrounds are now found in all walks of life and include eminent scientists, judges, and politicians. In recent years, as a business-led, consumer culture evolves, with status counted more by material wealth than family and tradition, the hold of caste is declining, with many inter-caste marriages, especially among the urban middle classes.
In the political sphere, parties and organizations based on caste lines have often been vociferous in the demanding of rights and the protection of the interests of their communities. Politicians and parties frequently seek to secure the votes of particular jatis (sub-castes). Allegiances, however, tend to be fluid and often based on expediency. The continuation of the system of positive discrimination in university entrance has caused friction with non-scheduled-caste students, who claim it has resulted in intolerably high entrance requirements for other castes and lowered standards.
Population Characteristics
India has about 16 per cent of the world’s population. Its population was 1,029,991,100 in 2001. The overall population density was about 325 people per sq km (843 per sq mi). Many births and deaths are unregistered, but official data suggest that the birth rate in 2001 was about 24 per 1,000. Life expectancy averaged 63 years. Approximately 72 per cent of India’s population lives in rural areas. Though living conditions in many areas have improved—for example through the provision of clean water—most people are still poor. About one third of the population lives on or below the UN poverty line; less than 3 per cent of Indian households have an income of more than US$2,500 a year.
Political Divisions
India is divided into 28 states—Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, and Uttar Pradesh; 6 Union Territories—Andaman and Nicobar, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Lakshadweep, and Pondicherry; and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. The Jammu and Kashmir region is disputed with Pakistan, and India claims Aksai Chin, administered by China since the Sino-Indian War of 1962, as part of Jammu and Kashmir State. The north-eastern border of Arunachal Pradesh is disputed between India and China.
India has about 16 per cent of the world’s population. Its population was 1,029,991,100 in 2001. The overall population density was about 325 people per sq km (843 per sq mi). Many births and deaths are unregistered, but official data suggest that the birth rate in 2001 was about 24 per 1,000. Life expectancy averaged 63 years. Approximately 72 per cent of India’s population lives in rural areas. Though living conditions in many areas have improved—for example through the provision of clean water—most people are still poor. About one third of the population lives on or below the UN poverty line; less than 3 per cent of Indian households have an income of more than US$2,500 a year.
Political Divisions
India is divided into 28 states—Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttaranchal, and Uttar Pradesh; 6 Union Territories—Andaman and Nicobar, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Lakshadweep, and Pondicherry; and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. The Jammu and Kashmir region is disputed with Pakistan, and India claims Aksai Chin, administered by China since the Sino-Indian War of 1962, as part of Jammu and Kashmir State. The north-eastern border of Arunachal Pradesh is disputed between India and China.
Religion
The major religious groups (followed by their approximate portion of the total population; 1991 census) are Hindus (82 per cent), Muslims (12.1 per cent), Christians (2.3 per cent), and Sikhs (1.94 per cent). Other important religious minorities are Buddhists, Jains, and Parsis.
The rise of religious nationalism and fundamentalism in India from the 1980s onwards has increased political and social tensions in some areas, and at times—such as the 1992 and 1993 riots in Punjab and elsewhere—has erupted into violence. The Hindutva movement, demanding a Hindu India, has grown significantly in strength. It is represented by the group of organizations collectively known as the Sangh Parivar, including the staunchly Hindu nationalist Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and the ultra-extremist Shiv Sena. The rise to power of the parliamentary wing of the movement, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in recent years, albeit as leader of fragile and wide-ranging coalitions, has increased the influence of Hindutva ideology. The rise of Hindutva has raised serious concerns regarding the future of the secular India established under Nehru.
Language
More than 1,600 languages or dialects are spoken in India, comprising 18 officially recognized languages; 16 are considered major languages, including Telugu, Bengali, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, and Gujarati. The constitution provides that Hindi—spoken by about 39 per cent of the population—is the official language of the country, with English an associate language for many official purposes. However, the official dominance of Hindi is unacceptable to states such as Tamil Nadu in the south, and the full implementation of the provision has had to be postponed.
The major religious groups (followed by their approximate portion of the total population; 1991 census) are Hindus (82 per cent), Muslims (12.1 per cent), Christians (2.3 per cent), and Sikhs (1.94 per cent). Other important religious minorities are Buddhists, Jains, and Parsis.
The rise of religious nationalism and fundamentalism in India from the 1980s onwards has increased political and social tensions in some areas, and at times—such as the 1992 and 1993 riots in Punjab and elsewhere—has erupted into violence. The Hindutva movement, demanding a Hindu India, has grown significantly in strength. It is represented by the group of organizations collectively known as the Sangh Parivar, including the staunchly Hindu nationalist Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and the ultra-extremist Shiv Sena. The rise to power of the parliamentary wing of the movement, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in recent years, albeit as leader of fragile and wide-ranging coalitions, has increased the influence of Hindutva ideology. The rise of Hindutva has raised serious concerns regarding the future of the secular India established under Nehru.
Language
More than 1,600 languages or dialects are spoken in India, comprising 18 officially recognized languages; 16 are considered major languages, including Telugu, Bengali, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, and Gujarati. The constitution provides that Hindi—spoken by about 39 per cent of the population—is the official language of the country, with English an associate language for many official purposes. However, the official dominance of Hindi is unacceptable to states such as Tamil Nadu in the south, and the full implementation of the provision has had to be postponed.
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